World Englishes

“World Englishes and the Teaching of Writing” is an article that directly helps pre-service teachers. After reading it, I had a better understanding of the different approaches a TESOL educator can take in regards to teaching writing and how it is viewed in classrooms today. In language classrooms, corrective feedback on student writing is expected. Sometimes, students may complain if the teacher does not correct grammar errors. As a result, legibility and comprehensibility are often not considered satisfactory goals in the context of writing instruction. This was upsetting to me because I feel that comprehensibility should be the main goal of writing. I believe that students should be able to get their point across to their reader and then focus on the details. The meaning of the message is the most important part of writing, so it should receive the most emphasis. When the article was addressing the different principles, a quote about teaching the non-dominant language forms and functions stuck out to me, “to overlook alternative uses of English can actually work against the goal of helping students develop an accurate understanding of how the English language works and how it changes over time.” When thinking of what to teach when it comes to English writing, the non-dominant language forms do not come to mind. The article raises a good point, however, to draw attention to them because the students need to develop their writing style. Knowing the dominant and non dominant will be helpful in establishing those styles. It is important for teachers not to overly valorize either the dominant discourses or alternative discourses because it is the students who will be doing the writing.

The chapter of Kubota’s entitled “The impact of globalization on language teaching in Japan” was about the tension of globalization in language learning and teaching in Japan. It was compared to three corners of a triangle: (1) ethnic, linguistic, and cultural diversity in the local communities; (2) the prevalence of English; and (3) nationalism endorsed by linguistic and cultural essentialism. The language learning in Japan has been strongly influenced by kokusaika discourse. It is about Japan’s power struggle on an international level through Anglicization. This discourse merges nationalism and Anglicization together. The Anglicization aspect of kokusaika stresses the development of international understanding and intercultural communication skills. However, the cultural nationalism emphasizes national identity in contrast with English culture. This discourse in important because it shows that Japan has not lost touch with its roots but that it is will to adapt to new ways.

Stand English Ideology

Chapter 5 in International English in Its Sociolinguistic Contexts was about the issues of standards in reference to World Englishes, the Standard English ideology, and intelligibility. The challenge that World Englishes present to the Standard ideology is that there should be different standards for different contexts of use. Standard English should be determined locally, as opposed to outside its context of use. Kachru believed that letting a variety of linguistic norms exist would lead to an educated variety of English that would be intelligible across many varieties. I agree with Kachru in that a variety of norms would bring about positive results. I feel that it is an optimistic way of looking at different varieties of English. Plus, it is more realistic. The global spread of English will only give rise to many more varieties, each with its own norms. There will always be unifying norms because they are all a variety of English, but each variety is and will continue to be unique. It is degrading to say that speakers of different varieties don’t speak the proper form because they are all forms of the same language. Therefore, I disagree with the monolithic model that argues that if localized standards are allowed to develop, English speakers will no longer be able to understand each other. Also, it is highly unlikely that it will ever happen. The point is often missed that “it is people, not language codes, that understand one another, and people use the varieties they speak for specific functions (Bamgbose 11).” Who is the judge for determining intelligibility in various varieties of English? It is not our place to say that certain ways are right. There is a diverse number of varieties of English, just as there are diverse varieties of languages overall.

Lippi-Green refers to standard language and non-accent as myths and abstractions. I had never thought of it in this way, but she makes a valid point. An abstraction is the idea of something which has no independent existence. This is true of standard language because it serves as an idea, not a fact. Myths are used to justify social order; this is not a way to prove anything because myths are not factual. Lippi-Green states that every native speaker of English has some regional variety. This makes it difficult to define a standard English because all native speakers have some kind of accent depending on their region. Every native speaker of US English has an L1 accent. People appear to have accents when their speech differs from the speech of the person who is listening. It is all about perspective. The lines between where dialects start and end geographically are not clear. Code switching is when a speaker of one language switched to another in the same conversation. Code shifting occurs when a speaker switches between dialects. They are both thought to be a skilled and complicated process, however to me, code shifting would be more difficult because the two languages involved are very similar. A speaker would have to be aware of how to pronounce certain sounds; otherwise they would not be code shifting if the sounds are too similar between dialects. Even though myths are not tangible, they are real enough to cost people jobs, when it comes to L2 accents. Not only that, but laws do not truly protect people in these situations, such as Mr. Kahakua when he was not given a promotion because of his accent, but the judge dropped the case because he did not speak standard English. This is just as bad as discriminating against other languages as we have talked about earlier this semester. Now people are learning English and we still discriminate against them. When will America and its people accept people for who they are and the unique differences that they bring to the table?

The Importance of Bilingual Education

Chapter Four: “Languages planning and policy” in McKay and Bokhorst-Heng’s book is about the ways in which the designation of an official language has consequences for language learning and teaching. The first is that the insight the designation provides into prevalent social attitudes toward particular languages. The second is that the effect of approved language policies on the stated language-in-education policy. Last is the setting of linguistic standards. It was also about the worldliness of language. One theme that was present is the relationship between language and social class. In parts of the world where English is used and taught, knowledge of the language results in benefits. However, not everyone has access to it. This is similar to the ongoing cycle of poverty. Wealth is kept among the top percentage of the population and education is similar. Children are born into rough neighbor hoods. They go to schools with low performance. They don’t get the education they need. The jobs that they can get don’t pay enough to get them out of the bad neighborhood to start their own family, so the cycle continues. Similarly, English is limited to certain people. Not everyone has access, causing education and the opportunity for economic increase to stay concentrated. In the chapter, English is presented as being neutral, devoid of any ethnic identity. I would choose to use a different word than “neutral” because I feel that it can raise controversy, especially for the reasons stated above. I can’t think of a word to replace it which I think raises a point in itself. There is no one way to describe the language and its effects of society in the United States and other countries. It can be a unifying language, like the book says, or a divisive language, like when it comes to class division.

The article Language Ideologies and Policies: Multilingualism and Education is about how difficult and complex it is to educate multilingual students in a society in which English is the dominant language in school and even communication in general.  It shows that common language beliefs (and misconceptions) are what govern policies. The part that rang true the most for me was about the negative effects that English-only policies can have on students. First of all, it deprives students of learning opportunities. English speaker students lose the chance to learn about the culture of the other students and ELLs risk the chance of not learning at a fast-enough rate. Some students need to hear explanations about concepts in their own languages to properly understand them. English-only policies also inhibit ELLs from developing their native language. With no exposure to it, they cannot continue to learn it. Lastly, it instills a contempt toward subordinate languages and dialects. It makes it seem that they are not worthy enough to use in the classroom and that English is superior to them. Is this the impression we want to give our students: that certain languages are “better” than others? Not only does it shine a bad light on the languages, but also the speakers of these languages. They are categorized as deficit. Students need to see each other as equals whose language and background are something to be celebrated, not discriminated against. These reasons seem so clear to me and others in the class, so why can’t policy makers see them in the same light?