ELF, Code-switching, and Writing

            After watching the video in class, I learned how culture is presented in the writing of English Language Learners. Japanese writers include four different parts in their writing: introduction, development, turning point, and conclusion. They believe that it is the reader’s job to interpret the writer’s meaning. For example, the Japanese use pronouns that do not indicate gender, but that is their intention because they want the reader to figure it out for themselves.  Turkish writers use long, poetic sentences. In Brazil, writers include many details and go around the main point before stating it. Colombians are similar to the Brazilians and believe that American writing is too direct and therefore, impolite. I had never thought of this before, but I can see what they mean. I am more direct than most people in my writing because I have a hard time deciding which details support the main point. Because of these differences, educators need to be sensitive as to how writing is approached in the cultures of their students. Teachers need to know what the students want to be corrected on, whether it is the small details or the main idea.

            Interactional Sociolinguistics was a chapter about ELF interactions, code-switching and how it is seen by bilinguals. McKay and Bokhorst-Heng made a valid point: by choosing to speak in a certain way, people express their sense of who they are and who they believe others are. They stated that, “in this way, our daily interactions play a crucial role in creating and maintaining the roles we fill, our social identities, and our personal identities.” Social interactions create and maintain who we think we are and who others think we are. We need to be mindful of how we portray ourselves because others are always watching. The International English in Its Sociolinguistic Contexts book believes code-switching to be the alteration of linguistic codes in the same conversation undertaken by proficient bilinguals (p165). After reading this, it is the first time I entertained the thought that it is between proficient speakers. I always thought of it on a more basic level. They also stated that there are different approaches to code-switching. What are they? Are they more beneficial to the speakers? The last point that surprised me was that one’s “mother tongue” has to do with one’s father’s ethnicity, and may not even be one’s native language spoken at home. Why is the word mother in the phrase? Overall, the chapter was very informational and introduced new topics to me.

The research conducted in the two different work places demonstrated that it can be difficult to recognize the modifications that are necessary to work respectfully with people from other backgrounds. However, the researchers were able to work with others because they knew about the principles of the Kaupapa Maori. They demonstrate that knowledge is a powerful tool that can bring people together and be more aware of differences so that people are sensitive to the culture of others. This does not mean that they have the principles mastered or that they will ever be able to appropriately apply them, but that they have an overall idea of them, which is a good start to understanding others. When we have the opportunity to work with others, we learn from them. This is one of the reasons I am such a supporter of bilingual education. There are different cultures in the classroom and the students are able to learn through interactions with one another and a diverse curriculum.

The Cultures of English as a Lingua Franca by Will Baker states that it is difficult to identify a culture of English as a Lingua Franca because it depends on the individual. The same goes for language. It is never culturally neutral because the speaker brings their own cultural history which results in the way that they communicate. This includes attitude, body language, tone of voice, and the manner that the speaker delivers the message. However, at the same time, learners of ELF need to be open to new ways of communication. Because of this, the ability to negotiate, mediate, and adapt to emerging communicative practices are an important aspect of learning ELF. Some argue that they are as important as systematic knowledge. I agree that they are just as important because communication is a vital part of language. Those skills are needed to function in society and outside of the classroom. Even though there is not one specific culture that is associated with ELF, educators can still touch on cultural awareness, language awareness, and accommodation skills in addition to the basics like grammar.

Stereotypes

The way in which Kubota presented “Unfinished Knowledge: The Story of Barbara” was a creative way to talk about culture and how it should be taught in the classroom. The main idea of the article is to not abandon one’s culture, just to adopt new ways. This can be applied to more than one setting. It the article it was meant in regards to writing, but it can also be used in regards to language. In the beginning of the story, Barbara was not culturally diverse when it came to her students. It affected her work and her interactions with students. After eating out with her colleague, she decided it would be best to teach many different cultures to the students and tell them what it is like in those cultures. However, she did not realize that she was basically feeding them stereotypes, which was not her intention. She reevaluated her teaching methods and came to the conclusion that it is acceptable for her to teach her students about what cultures do but to let them know that it is different in every household and that one characteristic does not define a culture. Is there a clear way as to how to approach it in the classroom? How should we go about teaching about cultures? I hope that when I am in the classroom, I reach the same conclusion that Barbara does. I want to educate my students about cultures but not tell them how to think. How do I balance that?

According to Kubota’s 1999 article, people define cultures with labels, whether or not they know them to be true. However, because the labels are distinctive, the labels are perceived as correct. This knowledge is not true, scientific, or neutral. It just allows groups to have power over each other. When people continue to use the labels, it enforces the different levels of stereotypes and power. For example, many people say “no homo” as if there is something wrong with being homosexual. The more that people use this phrase, the more it is reinforced as a norm and as an accepted stereotype. Kubota states, "It is in discourse that power and knowledge are joined together," which means that through discourse, power is spread. Labels create difference instead of aiding the togetherness of cultures. Concepts of certain groups are constructed by others; it does not define the group because the labels are not self-reflective. When it comes to knowledge, I advocate extending knowledge because it is constantly changing, improving, and replacing outdated knowledge. It is about creating new knowledge and is always a step ahead of the others. Conserving knowledge is an idea that keeps old knowledge and is not as accepting of change. It does not evolve as extending knowledge does. The way that Japanese schools operate contrasts from the way most people see them. Recent educational research shows that the Japanese preschool and elementary school curriculum does promote creativity, original thinking, and self-expression in its cultural contexts. This is how American schools are thought to operate. It is refreshing to see that some of the stereotypes are no longer in existence.

            Contrastive rhetoric is undergoing changes in its goals, methods, and how culturally sensitive it is. Cultures have different ways of writing. Some are direct, while others are not. Until reading this article, I had never thought of that. I always assumed that it is the same type of writing between cultures, just in different languages. But now I realize that people have different ways of conveying messages in other cultures and that not only is the language different, but the writing style is, as well. All cultural groups engage in a variety of types of writing, with their own conventions and tendencies that suit each culture. Contrastive rhetoric is slowly becoming sensitive to minority concerns, such as African American writers. Differences in race make a difference in the text and contrastive rhetoric is realizing that. When it comes to teaching how to write, it is usually preferred to teach the content rather than form. However, teaching the form of how to write an essay in English has proved to be beneficial to Japanese students. They have taken the knowledge and transferred it to other types of writing.

Cultural Stereotypes

Problematizing Cultural Stereotypes in TESOL by focused on Asian student stereotypes of their behavior in the classroom. The article said that they are obedient to authority, lack critical thinking skills, and do not participate in classroom interaction. In reality, these are not true. There are multiple Asian cultures that believe students should true in themselves and not rely on the teachers. The article quoted Confucius’s well-known saying which means “the teacher does not always have to be more knowledgeable than the pupil; and the pupil is not necessarily always less learned than the teacher.” This demonstrates that both the teacher and student are able to learn from each other’s wisdom and experiences. When it comes to critical thinking, Asians are often compared with American students. One reason why it seems that Asians do not critically think as much is that kind of thinking is stressed in American and not as much in other countries. Atkinson even argues that critical thinking is a special characteristic of the American upper and middle classes and cautions against teaching critical thinking to international and language minority students. He doubts whether they will even benefit from it. I do not agree with this statement. Who is to say that Asian students will/ will not benefit from it? Critical thinking can be taught to anyone; however it takes time to develop that skill, which is not always given to students who need it most. Also, some students are stronger in certain areas than others, just like in any other country. Lastly, the comment that Asian students do not participate in class is one that needs further explanation. American students usually participate in class more because class discussions and activities are in their native language, unlike Asian students. When they must speak, sometimes they suffer from anxiety because they now only need to think out what they are going to say, but also how to saying in a foreign language. This was an insightful article into how Asian students are perceived. Even though I am a Bilingual Education major, I focus mainly on Spanish-speaking students. I enjoyed reading about how a different culture is seen, other than a Latino culture. Also, some of these thoughts can even be applied to students that come from countries that are not near Asia, but speak another language.

Language and Identity

Social Identity, Investment, and Language Learning by Bonny Norton raised many good points about ELLs. The central argument of the paper is that SLA theorists have not developed a comprehensive theory of social identity that integrates the language learner and the language learning context. Norton wrote about self-confidence and how Gardner argues that self-confidence arises from positive experiences in the context of the second language. I agree with this statement, being a second language learner myself. I feel competent when I am able to interact with a native speaker with Spanish in their mother tongue. Going along with this topic, Norton wrote that learning cannot proceed without exposure and practice. The more exposure and practice, the more proficient the learner will become. I can personally attest to this from volunteering for 130 hours at Western Avenue Community Center under the Hispanic Outreach Director. I listened to her and her clients interact and by the end of the semester, I would meet with some of the clients without her being present. My Spanish improved and I became more confident as a speaker. But was I fluent? What is the technical definition of fluency?  Norton also wrote about how ELL speakers may sometimes be motivated, extroverted, and confident and sometimes unmotivated, introverted, and anxious.  This is usually due to who the speaker is around and what power-role they have.  Different ELLs feel comfortable different groups of people. However, it is important that all ELLs recognize their right to right to speak and be heard by native speakers. Another important implication of Norton’s study is that the second language teacher needs to help language learners claim the right to speak outside the classroom. The lived experiences and social identities of language learners need to be incorporated into the formal second language curriculum, referred to as classroom-based social research (CBSR). With this collaborative research that is carried out by language learners in their local communities with the active guidance and support of the language teacher, ELLs will feel more confident as speakers of English.

Hall’s chapter entitled Language and Identity focuses on how people see themselves and how others see them. Identity is something that a person can change certain aspects of, such as religion. Identity is how people define themselves based off on certain contexts and personal experiences. Cultural identities are like “cloaks” because they can be taken on and off. This is demonstrated in language. For example, a Spanish speaker might come to America and choose to practice and focus on only American culture, meaning that the person no longer speaks Spanish or celebrates certain holidays, such as Dia de los Muertos. It can also be referred to the fact that people might belong to a cultural group but may not act like the assumed societal role of that group. Their individual identity may conflict with their cultural identity. Another conflict that may arise might be with social structures that shape us as individuals. However, we contribute to these social structures and are the building blocks of them. Another idea that stuck with me is that no one can be “culture-free.” Culture does not exist apart from language or people, as language users. To communicate, we must use language therefore placing us in a culture and adding to our identity.

In Intercultural Communication, identity and people’s perspectives on it dominated the reading. James Gee, who wrote excerpts in the chapter, wrote about how everyone has a unique perspective. He states that, “when we speak or write we always take a particular perspective on what the world is like.” I find this to be true and demonstrated in word choice and tone of voice. Someone else could say the same words as me but not mean what I am trying to convey. I speak from my experiences and beliefs, which are unique to me. This is why it is hard, at times, to understand others. We do not necessarily know what they have been through or what is internally motivating them to speak about the topic they choose.